Book Preface

PREFACE

My purpose for writing this book was to honor my grandfather by telling his story. In addition I wanted to impart to the reader the experiences, as well as the conditions of war, and what it was like trying to survive each day.

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The story is based on the World War 1 journal written by Captain Frederick G. Coxen, who served in the Royal Field Artillery (RFA) and the Royal Air Force (RAF) from 1905 to 1919.

On August 5, 1914, he was called into active duty when the British Parliament passed the General Mobilization Decree. He reported for duty at Newcastle upon the Tyne located in northern England, where he was assigned to the newly created 40th Battery of the 43^rd Brigade. By August 16 the brigade had been sent over to France as part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF).

“World War 1 – An Unkept Promise” is a historical account of the following: the first battle of Mons, the first battle of Marne, the first Battle of The Aisne, the first and second battles of Ypres, and the battle of Neuve Chapelle. Each battle is represented as a chapter in the book and begins with a brief overview of the battle, intermingled with dramatic journal entries. This format helps establish a foundation for understanding the relationship between the journal entries and the battles they describe. Journal excerpts and other supportive documents are italicized and indented to assist with identification and clarity.

NOTE: All journal entries are quoted as they were written; some expressions, used one-hundred years ago, were in common usage, which would be deemed offensive in today’s society.

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The Story

Next Thursday, September 5th I'll be telling the story behind World War 1 - An Unkept Promise to the London branch of the Western Front Association. I'm trying to prepare myself since I've never talked in front of a large audience before.

I once took a public speaking class and they said to use very limited notes and speak from your heart and it will flow better. I hope it is true. My problem is I have Parkinson's and my mind is not the fastest processor in the world. It has also affected my voice so I'm concerned that I'll project so that the audience can hear and understand me.

Many of the selected journal entries will be read by a volunteer so that will help.

Next week will be very interesting and meaningful in so many ways. I'll keep everyone informed of how the events unfold.

World War 1 - An Unkept Promise is available on Kindle

RFA Signalers

My grandfather, Captain Fred G. Coxen served as a Signaller in the 40th Battery, 43rd Brigade RFA during the early battles of the war. For those who are not familiar with this hazardous occupation, often they were called suicide squads. They were responsible for maintaining open communications between forward observation posts, trenches, and artillery batteries.

Early in the war field telephones were used, which were connected by wire and often wire between phones would be cut during a bombardment. Those Signallers on repair duty would be responsible for repairing the broken line by following the wire by crawling along the ground until they found and repaired the break.

Most of the time they traveled in pairs while shells were bursting all around them and the enemy used them for target practice.

Being a signaller was an important job for without open communication the guns were not allowed to fire. If it was too dangerous, they would resort to using semaphore flags to pass information, which was also quite dangerous if you can visualize an enemy sniper peering through a rifle scope at a person standing in the open swinging around a flag on a long pole.

If wires were cut during the night, they would following the line until they found the break. One signaller would tie a white rag to one end of the wire while they searched for the other end. When it was found, they would crawl back to the white rag and splice the two wires together. They would have to make sure that their repair opened the line by hooking their field telephone instrument to the line and using the buzzer or Morse Code key they would key in "OK" and wait for the return "OK". If it wasn't returned, it meant that there was a second break to be found and repaired.

Lights could not be used for obvious reasons so in the ink of night they would have to do the repairs by feel. During heavy shelling it was common for lines to be broken several times thus making it an unhealthy endeavor.

On one occasion my grandfather and his chum George were repairing a wire near a wooden fence post and a bullet pasted between their noses and logged into the post. Later my grandfather returned to the spot and dug out the bullet for a souvenir.

Most people think that being in the trenches would be the more hazardous than being in the artillery, and for the most part it was, especially when men would have to climb out of the trenches and run across "no man's land" while being shot at and shelled. However, the field artillery batteries were positioned not far behind the trenches to support them during an attack or when they were being attacked. For that reason, German artillery units would try and knock out the Allied artillery and of course the reverse was also true.

Read more about these courageous men in the "World War 1 - An Unkept Promise" now available on Kindle.

 

Big Event Coming Up

Looking forward to telling my grandfather's story to those attending the London branch of the Western Front Association.

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Imperial War Museum

The date and time has been set to hand over my grandfather's military documents to the IWM in London. This will be the final chapter in my book - taking my grandfather back to his home country.

I am to meet with the document curator at 11:00 am on Friday, September 6th. It will be the morning after I give my speech to the London branch of the Western Front Association so between these two events I'll be a basket-case.

On Sept 6th, 1914 my grandfather recorded the following:

September 6^th

We were advancing, occupied a position east of [the town] of VOINSLES [so that we could] cover advance of [the] 3rd and 5th Cavalry Brigades. [We] moved forward and occupied [ the] line [between] Le PLESSIS, and ANDNOY. 

I dismounted behind the house and went inside, there I first saw house sacked by the Germans, [and] everything was destroyed. Outside I saw one of the Coldstream guards, killed by shrapnel, poor chap.

I thought then, I wondered if this means the breaking of a woman’s heart, or had he little children. It was my first close contact with a dead man, and it set me thinking. My thoughts were all with my dear ones at home. I shall always remember that hour, my real first initiation into the horrors of war. I cannot say I was afraid, it all seemed so strange, but we were advancing that was our cry we’ve got’em on the run, and we are going to have our own back. – bivouacked south of VOUDNOY.[i]

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[i] Coxen, Fred G.

I Corps - Skirmish At Landrecies

I CORPS - SKIRMISH AT LANDRECIES

August 25^th, 1914

I Corps’s retirement route consisted of a meandering road, which crossed the River Sambre several times. It was jammed with a mass of humanity trying to escape the advancing Germans, including French soldiers, mixed in with vast quantities of refugees.

The British troops did their best to constrict their movement on the single lane road, while dealing with the unrelenting August heat. At best, the Corps could only maintain a two mile an hour pace, eliminating any chance of meeting up with II Corps at Le Cateau.

By evening, the fatigued troops reached their billet area outside Landrecies, while General Haig established his headquarters in the town.

The VI Brigade billeted in Maroilles, a town just a few miles away.  

 Refugees arriving in Landrecies reported seeing advance portions of the German III and IV Corps heading towards both Landrecies and Maroilles.

 With advanced warning, the British created defensive positions around both towns.

When the Germans secretly approached the British line at Landrecies, they received a verbal challenge. By replying in French, the Germans were able to slyly proceed close to the British lines before the British could respond. The two armies clashed, and at times there was savage hand-to-hand fighting. Finally the Germans retreated to the southern edge of the Mormal Forest.[i]

Get your copy and learn more about the war and the Royal Field Artillery

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World War 1 - An Unkept Promise  - available on 

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THE HISTORIAN HAS WRITTEN

Historian  Michael Paris, Emeritus Professor of Modern History has written the foreword for my book!!

All wars are terrible, but the Great War seems particularly so.  In 1914 almost a whole generation of very young men were thrown into a conflict for which they were ill-prepared.  Romantic tales of daring cavalry charges and valorous knightly combats on the field of battle were scant preparation for a war where death was on an industrial scale and came from the unseen sniper, the howitzer miles away, or a creeping cloud of poison gas.  Yet men endured in the squalor of the trenches, and some survived; survived to come home to the ‘Land fit for Heroes’ of the politicians promised.  But those that came home came with the unending memories of what they had seen and suffered.  Many could not even tell their closest loved ones of what they had endured and took their memories to the grave. Now their lived memory of the Great War is no more, the last veterans have passed on and we are left with only the flimsy evidence of their passing.  That is why now, almost a hundred years after the event it is so pleasing to have found an unpublished account of one man’s experience of that most terrible war.

Frederick Coxen was a professional soldier, enlisting in 1905 and serving until 1911 in the Royal Field Artillery.  But being in the Army Reserves he was recalled in 1914, and went on to serve until his final discharge in 1920. His war service makes for interesting reading – serving through the early battles of Mons, First Ypres and Neuve Chapelle, he saw a war of movement stagnate into a statis as trenches and barbed wire brought all movement to an end. Commissioned in the field, Coxen also served in home defence with an anti-aircraft battery, and later back in France, as one of the defenders of Paris.  At war’s end he was attached to the Royal Air Force, and ended his military career as a captain in February 1920. To have survived the war might well be considered lucky, but that sort of luck comes at a price, and for Fred it was to see the horrors of war close-up, his friends killed and injured and all the suffering that battle brings.  Fred lived a long and full life but as the memoir he wrote in …… demonstrates, his Great War experience

never left him.  Like so many veterans of 1914 -1918 war was a constant presence. 

These valuable memories might never have seen the light of day had it not been for Fred’s grandson and name sake, Frederick L. Coxen, it is through his tenacity and commitment that his grandfather speaks to us today. 

Michael Paris

Emeritus Professor of Modern History

ORDER YOUR COPY FROM KINDLE - WORLD WAR 1 - AN UNKEPT PROMISE

First Two Reviews

I received the first two reviews on my new book, "World War 1 - An Unkept Promise" now available on Kindle.

This is a very important book, containing a historical document which throws a new light on the events of 1914 and 1915. The book is essentially in three parts: the journal of Frederick Coxen (the author's grandfather and namesake), an explanation of the events taking place as the journal was written and the author's quest to find the relatives of his grandfather's friends.

The journal is important for two reasons. It details the work of the men who kept the lines of communication open to direct bombardments at a time when the war had not yet settled into trench warfare. This is unusual if not unique. Additionally it touches on an important historical controversy - that of the crucified soldier. There has been debate about whether or not the Germans crucified a soldier. Frederick Coxen was an eye-witness to the retaliation the Canadians took - crucifying a German and pinning a notice to him saying "Canada does not forget." It seems to me unreasonable that such an action would take place without some provocation. For this reason alone, students of the period should read this book or, indeed, the diary itself, which the author intends to present to the Imperial War Museum in London.

The quest for the relatives of Coxen's dead friends is also worth reading if only to show how difficult it is to find information even today. We had a similar experience looking for my father-in-law who received his fatal wound at Dunkirk and died from it over twenty years later. The Middlesex Regiment has no record of him although we have all his badges, buttons and medals. The author did very well to find out as much as he did.

This is a book for serious historians and also for those who want to know more about this period of history or to work through the bureaucracy of searching any database for relatives.

By 

Moirrey 

Although I do like to watch war movies, I had never read a war story, fact or fiction. I read this one because a friend said I would like it. I'm glad I read the book because I liked it immensely.

First, let me just say this book would make an excellent basis for a movie.

It was amazing to see action through Fred's eyes. What was even more amazing was how Fred maintained a lighthearted attitude while shells and bullets were flying all about. It is much different to hear someone explain what's happening in his own words as it happens, rather than many years later through memory. It almost makes you feel as though you're right there with him. I would love to watch a movie based on the journal.

The author did an excellent job in filling in details to give context to the journal entries. Knowing what happened, why it happened and how many casualties for the battles Fred talks about makes it even more amazing that he was able to not only remain cool and collected but was able to write down what happened in his journal.

For war buff and historians, this book provides many first hand details which you don't see very often.

By 

Abbie (Milford, PA USA) 

The Good The Bad and the Ugly

BRITISH COMMANDERS

Field Marshal John Denton Pinkstone French, 1^st Earl of Ypres (28 September 1885 – 22 May 1925)

Sir John French distinguished himself by commanding the Cavalry Division during the Second Bore War. He became Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) in 1912, before serving for two years as the first Commander-in-Chief of the British Expeditionary Force during World War I.

 Even thought promoted to field marshal on 3 June, 1913, French had neither staff experience nor had studied at Staff College in order to excel in his position. As CIGS he forced through some controversial changes to infantry battalions, first changing the composition of a battalion from eight small companies commanded by captains, to four large companies commanded by majors.[1] 

He also ensured that cavalry would continue to be trained to fight with sword and lance rather than fight dismounted with firearms. These changes caused concerns regarding French’s lack of intellect and knowledge for the position he held. [2]

Field Marshal Douglas Haig, 1^st Earl Haig

(19 June 1861 – 29 January 1928)

Douglas Haig was a British senior officer during World War I, commanding the 1^st Corps, until he replaced Sir John French as commander-in-chief of the BEF.

Some have criticized him for the number of British casualties that occurred during his command, and regarded him as representing class-based incompetent commanders unable to grasp modern tactics and technologies.[3]

General Sir Horace Lockwood Smith-Dorrien

(26 May 1858 – 12 August 1930)

Smith-Dorrien commanded the British II Corps during World War I and is best known for his successful defensive action in the Battle of Le Cateau. He commanded the British Second Army at the Second Battle of Ypres before being relieved of command by Sir John French.[4]

FRENCH GENERALS

Marshal Joseph Jacques Cesaire Joffre

(12 January 1852 – 3 January 1931)

Joseph Joffre was the French general and commander-in-chief of the Allied army during World War I, best known for regrouping the retreating allied armies in order to defeat the Germans at First Battle of the Marne in 1914.

Joffre was a career officer who saw active service in different theaters. While serving in the colonies he was asked to returned to France to be appointed commander-in-chief of the French Army in 1911.

He purged French officers who were “defensive-minded” and replaced them with those believing in the offensive “Plan XVII”.[5]

Like French, Joffre was selected to command despite the fact he never commanded an Army, and was labeled as “having no knowledge what so ever of how a General Staff works.”

Charles Lanrezac 

(July 31, 1852 – January 18, 1925)

Lanrezac was a French general, formerly a distinguished staff college lecturer, who commanded the French Fifth Army at the outbreak of World War I.

At the Battle of Charlerol he intended to strike the Germans on their western flank, but before he could act, the German 2^nd Army struck first. After experiencing heavy casualties, he ordered the French Army to retreat. He recovered from his embarrassment at Chalerol by launching  a successful counterattack at the Battle of Guise. He was relieved of his command by Joffre before the Battle of the Marne.[6]

Ferdinand Foch was born in 1851. He fought in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 and became an artillery specialist in 1907. When war broke out in 1914, Foch commanded the French Second Army until the Battle on the Marne, after which he headed the French Ninth Army.[7]

GERMAN GENERALS

Alexander Heinrich Rudolph von Kluck

(1846-1934)

Von Kluck was born in Munster on 20 May 1846. During the First World War he commanded the German First Army. He was known as an aggressive commander and grew impatient with his counterpart, Second Army commander von Bulow, who was unwilling to allow gaps between the two armies. This eventually led to failure of the infamous “Schlieffen Plan” when von Kluck advanced his army south and east of Paris instead of north and west as planned.[8]

FIELD MARSHAL KARL von BULOW

(1846-1921)

Karl von Bulow was born on 24 April, 1846. At the start of the First World War von Bulow was given the command of the German Second Army and to ensure that the German invasion of Belgium went according to the Schlieffen Plan, he was also given control over both the First and Third Armies. However, his control was rescinded when he and, the aggressive, von Kluck clashed over Bulow’s cautious nature.

Bulow’s greatest success was capturing the Belgian fortress of Namur and defeating the French General Lanrezac’s Firth Army at the Battle of Charleroi on 23-24 August, 1914.[9]

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Introduction

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INTRODUCTION

The date was 1887. Richard and Alice Coxen were adding a son, Frederick George, to the four children that already filled their house. Living in Battersea, Richard was a sail-maker whose trade was vanishing due to Britain’s Industrial Revolution. (Figure 3) The modern vessels were propelled by coal fired steam engines that bellowed out dark black smoke.

Little is known about Fred’s childhood, until he turned eighteen in 1905. That is when he enlisted in the Royal Field Artillery (RFA), assigned to the 55^th Battery. His reasons for enlisting are unknown, but it could be argued that he did so in order to further his education. Even though the law of 1870 provided schooling for all children, it was common that children of working class parents were given only a rudimentary education at best; many never had an opportunity to attend school beyond the age of 12.

   When children turned the age of eighteen, the British military offered soldiers a basic education in return for six years of active and six years of reserve duty. In 1907 Fred earned both his third and second class education certificates in composition (Figure 4) – leading one to believe that his desire to obtain an education may have been a major inducement in his decision to enlist.

   Along with a classroom education, he was also trained in all aspects of operating artillery, yet he selected Signalling as his specialty. When new field telephones were introduced, Fred was sent to Ireland in 1909 for training (Figure 5). Communications between the artillery batteries and the forward observation post were extremely vital for shelling accuracy and target selection.

In 1911 he was awarded the “Assistant Signal Instructor” certificate, just prior to his departure from active duty to begin his RFA reserve obligation. (Figure 6)

 Serving in the RFA Reserves allowed Fred more time to pursue his training as an electrician. During this period of time he lived in Westminster, at 28 Berkley Street, an address which proved to be romantically significant. The attractive Lillian Turner, who lived with her parents at 32 Berkley Street, provided an alluring and convenient dating arrangement. It did not take long for Lillian to put a twinkle in Fred’s eyes. After a brief courtship, they were married on October 12^th, 1912, at the Parish Church, in the Parish of St. Mary, Lambeth (Figure 7). By 1913 the young couple moved to 93 Rectory Lane, Tooting Bec Common, where Lillian gave birth to a baby girl they named Doris.

It could be assumed that Fred would have kept abreast of what was happening in Europe, after years of escalating turmoil. Rising political strife between Germany, France, and Russia, fuelled by the escalating tensions between Austria– Hungary and Serbia produced whispers of war.

Otto von Bismark, a German ambassador, predicted that “some damn foolish thing in the Balkans,” would ignite the next war[i]. On June 28, 1914, the assassination of the Austrian heir apparent, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, by Serbian nationals, brought his prediction to fruition. The house of cards, constructed of alliances between key countries in Europe, was beginning to collapse.

This descent into the abyss of war resembled the tumbling of a row of dominoes, when one falls the rest will follow.

It started when Austria–Hungary attacked Serbia in response to the assassination of the Archduke. Russia had an alliance with Serbia; therefore Russia declared war on Austria-Hungary. As Austria-Hungary was allied with Germany, Germany declared war on both Serbia and Russia. Russia and France had an alliance, so France slid into the abyss alongside the others. This cascading effect would continue as other countries entered the war, with the exception of Britain. 

Britian was not involved in alliances with other countries; however she did have a loose agreement with France, although not politically binding. It was an agreement that they would openly discuss providing mutual aid should either country be attacked. However, under the existing circumstances, this agreement took on deeper meaning and greater importance to Britain once she considered the consequences if France should lose the war. Parliament was debating this issue when the game changed.

Germany declared that they were going to use Belgium, a neutral country, as an avenue for attacking France. This outraged Britain since she had strong ties with Belgium. Britain sent an ultimatum; if Germany invaded Belgium, Britain would enter the war.[ii]

Germany’s Kaiser Welhelm was unconcerned by the threat, and ordered his army to invade Belgium on August 4, 1914. When the German Army crossed over the Belgian border the British Parliament signed the General Mobilization Decree; Britain was officially at war with Germany.

 Within a few hours after the decree was posted, Fred received his orders to report for duty on August 5^th at Newcastle upon the Tyne. The forces that had been put in motion prior to this date would forever alter Fred’s life.

Fred’s first journal entry:

August 4th

“General Mobilization”, will it be declared? was the thought with me all day. My dear wife first gave me the news, but then I could not believe it, until, we walked to the post office and saw the Official Declaration. [iii]

And then I knew that, I should have to leave my home and dear ones — for “Where”, that was my one great thought. And until then I never realized what it all meant; with the conflicting thoughts, of my dear ones, and the fascination that I was going to participate in a real scrap. My mind was in a real whirl, and was so until I left home next day, for Newcastle-on-Tyne.[iv] And then — “Where?”

August 5th

I do not dwell on the thought of leaving my dear little wife, my mother, and baby — the journey up north was one of enthusiasm, for the train was packed with reservists, rejoining the Colours, as I, and all seemed absolutely mad to go and obliterate Germany!

August 6–7^th

Drawing kit, passing Doctors, etc: - was detailed to join the 39th Bde R.F.A Surplus Details, as acting Q. M Sergt, at Borden Camp, [I] was very disappointed, for this meant that I should, not go to the front yet.

As I was informed that we should form the nucleus of a Reserve Brigade at Shorncliffe.[v]

 August 8^th – 14^th

Arrived at Borden, gave great satisfaction to C.O. - and volunteered for immediate Service.

After a little trouble and help of Brigadier Clark, I was detailed to join 43^rd Bde RFA. At Deepcut[vi] – I joined them late on night of 14^th, and was glad to meet a couple of chums in the Battery. I joined – 40^th Btty RFA.

August 15^th

Getting ready to embark – “Where”, that was the burning question for all orders were secret. [vii]

August 16^th

Embarked at Southampton on the SS City of Chester - uneventful trip – disembarked at Boulogne next morning - I knew well that I was in France, grand reception.

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[i] Tuchman, Barbara W. The Guns of August pp 85

[ii] Marshall, S.L.A. World War 1  pp 50-53

[iii] Coxen, Fred G. World War Journal 1914-1915

[iv] By the time of the First World War, existing coastal batteries on the east coast, most of which had been built during the nineteenth century against the perceived threat of France, had been adapted or new batteries created to take the new breech-loading guns. At the outbreak of hostilities, it was the Admiralty that was responsible for overseeing the home shore defences, as the Army was overstretched providing men and equipment in France, Belgium and the Middle East. Because of the concentration of strategic factories and installations (in Tyne and Wear for example, twelve armaments factories) the North-East coast was one of the most heavily defended areas in the country; the perceived threat was initially against bombardment or invasion from the sea, but by 1916, when the Army took over command of the home defence, the aerial threat from Zeppelins and, in southern Britain, heavy bombers, was the most pressing concern, fuelled by panic among the civilian population, who were under attack from the enemy for the first time. In 1916 a network of searchlights was established 25 miles inland from Sussex to

Northumberland.

[v] Shorncliffe is located on the coastal plain where the North Downs meet the Straits of Dover. The British government purchased a large piece of land at Shorncliffe in 1794 and fortified it in preparation for the expected French invasion. The Shorncliffe Redoubt is significant as the birthplace of modern infantry tactics.

[vi] Deepcut: Military barracks were started in the late 19^th century near Surrey Heath village Deepcut.

[vii] Coxen, Fred G.

World War 1 - An Unkept Promise

This is a very important book, containing a historical document which throws a new light on the events of 1914 and 1915. The book is essentially in three parts: the journal of Frederick Coxen (the author's grandfather and namesake), an explanation of the events taking place as the journal was written and the author's quest to find the relatives of his grandfather's friends.

The journal is important for two reasons. It details the work of the men who kept the lines of communication open to direct bombardments at a time when the war had not yet settled into trench warfare. This is unusual if not unique. Additionally it touches on an important historical controversy - that of the crucified soldier. There has been debate about whether or not the Germans crucified a soldier. Frederick Coxen was an eye-witness to the retaliation the Canadians took - crucifying a German and pinning a notice to him saying "Canada does not forget." It seems to me unreasonable that such an action would take place without some provocation. For this reason alone, students of the period should read this book or, indeed, the diary itself, which the author intends to present to the Imperial War Museum in London.

The quest for the relatives of Coxen's dead friends is also worth reading if only to show how difficult it is to find information even today. We had a similar experience looking for my father-in-law who received his fatal wound at Dunkirk and died from it over twenty years later. The Middlesex Regiment has no record of him although we have all his badges, buttons and medals. The author did very well to find out as much as he did.

Now available on Kindle

This is a book for serious historians and also for those who want to know more about this period of history or to work through the bureaucracy of searching any database for relatives.

New & Improved

I have just posted "World War 1 - An Unkept Promise" on Kindle for the ridicules low price of $2.99. So what do you get for this insignificant amount of money? More family history, whole chapter on the Royal Field Artillery, a dedicated chapter on the political maneuvering that went on in Britten in order to create the British Expeditionary Force. For those that wondered what happened in Fred's military career after his last journal entry, the answer is in the book. Also there are updates on the three chums as well as changes in the Epilogue. The author listened to the reviewers and included over twenty digital images, which include photographs and 100 year old military documents.

The book is non-fiction and each battle narrative has been approved by a WW1 historian. After further research I included more insight on the crucifixion of the Canadian soldier.

Go to the Kindle Store to purchase your copy of "World War 1 - An Unkept Promise" NOW!    

THE BUILD UP 1914

When war was declared, the Regular Army comprised 247,432 men (all ranks), of which 79,000 were in India. The ‘Special Reserve’ and the Territorial Force totalled 270,859 men. It was intended that the defence of the homeland would be carried out by the fourteen divisions of the Territorial Force, which was created in 1908 by then Secretary of State for War, Richard Haldane.

      “County Associations were established, to organise and administer the Territorial Force, the infantry battalions being established at 29 officers and 980 non-commissioned officers and men.  The Force establishment was 312,000 men, but this target was never reached and recruitment peaked, probably, in June 1909 at 270,000.  By the beginning of that year, each Territorial unit had been assigned a specific role, either in coastal defence or as part of a central force.  Much of the Territorial Force’s equipment was obsolete and the Force never fulfilled Richard Haldane’s intention of being immediately available for service overseas. In 1910, members of it had been invited to accept a liability to serve abroad in the event of mobilisation, but barely seven per cent had made the ‘Imperial Service’ pledge, by September 1913.

      Prior to Britain declaring war, her small, all-regular, professional army was designed to police the Empire, therefore at the outset only capable of fielding, in Europe, only six infantry and one cavalry divisions, totaling 162,000 men. Virtually all of the Regular Army available in Britain, in 1914, numbered about 160,000 men, of whom a little over 100,000 were front-line troops. 

Each infantry division numbered three brigades of four infantry battalions with supporting artillery formations. The entire British Army, worldwide, did not amount to more than eleven Regular divisions.

     There was an ongoing debate around the decision to send all six divisions to France and Belgium, or hold back one or more to protect the homeland until the Territorials had additional time to train. In attendance at the August 5^th meeting of the War Council, was Prime Minister Herbert Henry Asquith, Sir Edward Grey; who served as Foreign Secretary from 1905-1916, Winston Churchill; First Lord of the Admiralty, and Lord Richard Haldane; War Minister, and served as Lord Chancellor from 1912 until he left office in 1915.

     Also present were eleven Army general officers, including Field Marshal Sir John French and two of his corps commanders, Sir Douglas Haig and Sir James Grierson, among others.

    At the last minute there was an invasion scare that altered the War Council’s decision to send only four of the six divisions, along with one cavalry division. This was to take place immediately – embarkation was to begin August 9.

      Field Marshall Lord Kitchener had reluctantly accepted his appointment as Secretary of State for War. He passionately wanted to protect Britain’s Regular Army. He believed that Britain’s professional army, especially the officers, should be used for training new recruits instead of throwing them away fighting battles.

He wasn’t involved in the original planning process for fighting a war in Europe, which offered him a different perspective on the impact six divisions of the Expeditionary Force would have on the outcome of the war, especially in contrast to Germany and France’s seventy divisions each. 

     Lord Kitchener disapproved of the French offensive strategy, he ordered Sir John French, if he was asked to participate in any “forward movements” in which the French army wasn’t present in large numbers, and in which the British might be “unduly exposed to attack,” to consult his government first

That Sir John must “distinctly understand that his command would be an entirely independent one and that he will in no case be under the orders of any Allied general.”

     In this one stroke, Kitchener negated the principle of unity of command. His motive was the preservation of the British Army. Given Sir John’s temperament, the order practically nullified the order to “support” and “cooperate” with the French. This was to haunt the Allied war effort long after Sir John was replaced and Kitchener himself was dead.

       Lord Kitchener wanted the BEF’s staging area to be Amiens, which offered a safe distance from the advancing German Army. However, at the last minute it was changed to Maubeuge, where the BEF would experience the full weight of the German forces.

     On August 6-10, 80,000 troops of the BEF with 30,000 horses, 315 field guns, and 125 machine guns, were gathered at the Southampton and Portsmouth embarkation ports.

BRITISH COMMANDERS

Field Marshal John Denton Pinkstone French, 1^st Earl of Ypres (28 September 1885 – 22 May 1925)

He distinguished himself by commanding the Cavalry Division during the Second Bore War. Sir John French became Chief of the Imperial General Staff in 1912, before serving for two years as the first Commander-in-Chief of the British Expeditionary Force during World War I.

      After being promoted to Chief of the Imperial General Staff (‘CIGS’) on 15 March 1912, then promoted to field marshal on 3 June 1913. French had neither staff experience nor studied at Staff College in order to excel in his position. As CIGS he forced through some controversial changes to infantry battalions, first changing the composition of a battalion from eight small companies commanded by captains, to four large companies commanded by majors.  

He also ensured that cavalry would continue to be trained to fight with sward and lance rather than fight dismounted with firearms. These changes caused concerns that French lack of intellect and knowledge for the position he held. 

Field Marshal Douglas Haig, 1^st Earl Haig (19 June 1861 – 29 January 1928) was a British senior officer during World War I commanding the 1^st Corps until he replaced Sir John French as commander-in-chief of the BEF.

     Some have criticized him for the number of British casualties that occurred during his command, and regarded him as representing class-based incompetent commanders unable to grasp modern tactics and technologies.

General Sir Horace Lockwood Smith-Dorrien (26 May 1858 – 12 August 1930)

Smith-Dorrien commanded the British II Corps during World War I and is best known for his successful defensive action in the Battle of Le Cateau. He commanded the British Second Army at the Second Battle of Ypres before being relieved of command by Sir John French.[9]

FRENCH GENERALS

Marshal Joseph Jacques Cesaire Joffre 12 January 1852 – 3 January 1931 was a French general and commander-in-chief of the Allied army during World War I best known for regrouping the retreating allied armies in order to defeat the Germans at First Battle of the Marne in 1914.

     Joffre was a career officer and saw active service in different theaters and was serving in the colonies when he was asked to returned to France to be appointed commander-in-chief of the French Army in 1911.

     He purged French officers which were, “defensive-minded” and replaced them with those believing in the offensive “Plan XVII”.

     Like French, Joffre was selected to command despite the fact he never commanded an Army, and “having no knowledge what so ever of how a General Staff works.”

Charles Lanrezac (July 31, 1852 – January 18, 1925) was a French general, formerly a distinguished staff college lecturer, who commanded the French Fifth Army at the outbreak of World War I.

At the Battle of Charlerol he intended to strike the Germans on their western flank, but before he could act, the German 2^nd Army struck first. After experiencing heavy casualties, he ordered the French Army to retreat. He recovered from his embarrassment at Chalerol by launching  a successful counterattack at the Battle of Guise. He was relieved of his command by Joffre before the Battle of the Marne.

Ferdinand Foch Was born in 1851. He fought in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 and became an artillery specialist in 1907. When war broke out in 1914, Foch commanded the French Second Army until the Battle on the Marne when he headed the French Ninth Army.

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